BACKGROUND Ubiquitin (Ub) and Ub-like proteins (Ub-L) are critical regulators of complex cellular processes such as the cell cycle, DNA repair, transcription, chromatin remodeling, signal translation, and protein degradation. Giardia intestinalis possesses an experimentally proven Ub-conjugation system; however, a limited number of enzymes involved in this process were identified using basic local alignment search tool (BLAST). This is due to the limitations of BLAST’s ability to identify homologous functional regions when similarity between the sequences dips to < 30%. In addition Ub-Ls and their conjugating enzymes have not been fully elucidated in Giardia. OBJETIVE To identify the enzymes involved in the Ub and Ub-Ls conjugation processes using intelligent systems based on the hidden Markov models (HMMs). METHODS We performed an HMM search of functional Pfam domains found in the key enzymes of these pathways in Giardia’s proteome. Each open reading frame identified was analysed by sequence homology, domain architecture, and transcription levels. FINDINGS We identified 118 genes, 106 of which corresponded to the ubiquitination process (Ub, E1, E2, E3, and DUB enzymes). The E3 ligase group was the largest group with 82 members; 71 of which harbored a characteristic RING domain. Four Ub-Ls were identified and the conjugation enzymes for NEDD8 and URM1 were described for first time. The 3D model for Ub-Ls displayed the β-grasp fold typical. Furthermore, our sequence analysis for the corresponding activating enzymes detected the essential motifs required for conjugation. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the complexity of Giardia’s Ub-conjugation system, which is drastically different from that previously reported, and provides evidence for the presence of NEDDylation and URMylation enzymes in the genome and transcriptome of G. intestinalis.

Introducción. La producción de proteínas recombinantes es fundamental para el estudio funcional de las proteínas de Plasmodium falciparum . Sin embargo, las proteínas recombinantes de P . falciparum están entre las más difíciles de expresar y, cuando lo hacen, usualmente se agregan dentro de cuerpos de inclusión insolubles. Objetivo. Evaluar la producción de cuatro proteínas de P. falciparum usando como sistema de expresión dos cepas de Escherichia coli genéticamente modificadas para favorecer la producción de proteínas heterólogas y establecer una reserva de proteínas recombinantes puras y solubles, y producir anticuerpos policlonales a partir de ellas. Materiales y métodos. Las proteínas recombinantes, las cuales correspondían a secuencias parciales de PfMyoA (Miosina-A) y PfGAP50 (proteína-asociada a glideosoma de 50 kDa) y a las secuencias completas de PfMTIP (proteína de interacción con miosina-A) y PfGAP45 (proteína asociada a glideosoma de 45 kDa), fueron expresadas como proteínas de fusión con la glutatión S-transferasa y luego purificadas y usadas para producir anticuerpos policlonales en ratón. Resultados. La expresión de las proteínas recombinantes fue mucho más eficiente en la cepa BL21-CodonPlus (la cual expresa tRNAs escasos en las bacterias silvestres), que en la cepa BL21-pG-KJE8. Por el contrario, aunque la cepa BL21-pG-KJE sobreexpresa chaperonas, no redujo la formación de cuerpos de inclusión. Conclusión. El uso de cepas de E . coli genéticamente modificadas fue fundamental para alcanzar altos niveles de expresión de las cuatro proteínas recombinantes evaluadas y permitió obtener dos de ellas en forma soluble. La estrategia utilizada permitió expresar cuatro proteínas recombinantes de P . falciparum en cantidad suficiente para inmunizar ratones y producir anticuerpos policlonales y, además, conservar proteína pura y soluble de dos de ellas para ensayos futuros.

Introduction: The production of recombinant proteins is essential for the characterization and functional study of proteins from Plasmodium falciparum . However, the proteins of P . falciparum are among the most challenging to express, and when expression is achieved, the recombinant proteins usually fold incorrectly and lead to the formation of inclusion bodies. Objective: To obtain and purify four recombinant proteins and to use them as antigens to produce polyclonal antibodies. The production efficiency and solubility were evaluated as the proteins were expressed in two genetically modified strains of Escherichia coli to favor the production of heterologous proteins (BL21-CodonPlus (DE3)-RIL and BL21-pG-KJE8). Materials and methods: The four recombinant P. falciparum proteins corresponding to partial sequences of PfMyoA (Myosin A) and PfGAP50 (gliding associated protein 50), and the complete sequences of PfMTIP (myosin tail interacting protein) and PfGAP45 (gliding associated protein 45), were produced as glutathione S-transferase-fusion proteins, purified and used for immunizing mice. Results: The protein expression was much more efficient in BL21-CodonPlus, the strain that contains tRNAs that are rare in wild-type E. coli , compared to the expression in BL21-pG-KJE8. In spite of the fact that BL21-pG-KJE8 overexpresses chaperones, this strain did not minimize the formation of inclusion bodies. Conclusion: The use of genetically modified strains of E . coli was essential to achieve high expression levels of the four evaluated P . falciparum proteins and lead to improved solubility of two of them. The approach used here allowed us to obtain and purify four P . falciparum proteins in enough quantity to produce polyclonal antibodies in mice, and a fair amount of two pure and soluble recombinant proteins for future assays.

Introducción. Giardia intestinalis es un organismo tempranamente divergente en el que recientemente se demostró la presencia de intrones. La maquinaria responsable de la remoción de intrones en organismos eucariotas superiores es el empalmosoma, el cual está conformado por cinco ribonucleoproteínas, cada una de las cuales tiene un ARN pequeño nuclear, un set de siete proteínas Sm (B, D1, D2, D3, E, F y G) y varias proteínas específicas. En G. intestinalis se han identificado los genes de algunas proteínas del empalmosoma por bioinformática. Aunque se asume que este es el responsable del empalme en el parásito, su caracterización bioquímica no se ha hecho. Objetivo. Inhibir dos genes que codifican para proteínas del empalmosoma de G. intestinalis con el fin de determinar si esta inhibición afecta el crecimiento o el enquistamiento del parásito. Materiales y métodos. En un vector específico para G. intestinalis se clonaron secuencias antisentido de los genes que codifican para las proteínas SmB y SmD3 del empalmosoma del parásito. Posteriormente, se transfectó G. intestinalis con los vectores recombinantes y se seleccionaron aquellos parásitos que lo incorporaron. Se confirmó la disminución del mensajero mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) en tiempo real, y se evaluaron el crecimiento y el enquistamiento en parásitos silvestres y transfectados. Resultados. Se observó una disminución de 40 y 70 % en el ARNm de SmB y SmD3, respectivamente. El crecimiento y el enquistamiento no se vieron afectados en estos parásitos. Conclusión. La disminución de SmB y SmD3 no afectó al parásito, lo que indica que el empalmosoma sigue siendo funcional, o que el empalme no es una función vital del parásito.

Introduction. Giardia intestinalis is an early divergent organism that was recently shown to have introns. The machinery responsible for the removal of introns in higher eukaryotes is the spliceosome, which consists of five ribonucleoproteins. Each of these ribonucleoproteins has a small nuclear RNA, a set of seven Sm proteins (B, D1, D2, D3, E, F and G) and several specific proteins. Some genes that encode spliceosome proteins have been bioinformatically identified in the parasite genome. Although it is assumed that the spliceosome is responsible for splicing in this parasite, biochemical characterization is lacking. Objective. To inhibit two G. intestinalis spliceosome protein genes in order to determine whether this inhibition affects parasite growth or encystation. Materials and methods. Antisense sequences of the genes encoding the spliceosomal parasite proteins SmB and SmD3 were cloned into a specific G. intestinalis vector. G. intestinalis individuals were subsequently transfected with the recombinant vectors and those parasites that incorporated the vector were selected. A decrease in mRNA levels by real-time PCR was confirmed and the growth and encystation in wild and transfected parasites was assessed. Results. A decrease of 40% and 70% of SmB and SmD3 mRNA levels, respectively, was observed. Growth and encystation in these parasites were not affected. Conclusion. Decrease of SmB and SmD3 mRNA levels does not affect the parasite, indicating that the spliceosome remains functional or that splicing is not essential for parasite viability.

En este trabajo se presenta una estrategia combinada que buscaba, primero, analizar por métodos computacionales la secuencia de la enzima ubiquitina carboxilo-terminal hidrolasa 14 de Giardia intestinalis (UBP6) reportada para buscar componentes relacionados con su función hipotética y segundo, determinar si el gen que codifica para la proteína se expresa en G. intestinalis y si lo hace, cómo es su patrón de transcripción a lo largo del ciclo de vida del parásito. Se encontró que la proteína pertenece a la familia de deubiquitinasas dependientes de cisteína y más específicamente a las proteasas específicas para ubiquitina (USPs por ubiquitin specific proteases). También se identificaron el centro catalítico con la triada completa así como características típicas del motivo USP. Teniendo en cuenta que los resultados computacionales sugieren que la enzima puede ser funcional, se usó la técnica de transcripción reversa acoplada a PCR como un primer acercamiento para establecer si el gen codificante se expresa en el parásito. De manera interesante, se determinó no solo que el gen se expresa sino que existe una variación de su transcripción a lo largo del ciclo de vida del parásito. Estos hallazgos son el punto de partida para posteriores estudios ya que sugieren de manera preliminar que esta enzima podría estar involucrada en el recambio de proteínas que ocurre en el parásito durante el proceso de enquistación. Aunque preliminar, este estudio es el primer reporte acerca de una enzima deubiquitinadora específica en el parásito G. intestinalis.

This paper presents a combined approach with two aims. The first is to analyze the reported sequence of the enzyme ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 14 of Giardia intestinalis (UBP6) through computational methods to find components related with its hypothetical function. The second is to determine if the protein-coding gene is expressed in G. intestinalis and, if such is the case, also determine its transcription pattern along the life cycle of the parasite. It was established that the protein belongs to the family of Cys-dependent deubiquitinases and more specifically to ubiquitin specific proteases (USPs). Moreover, the catalytic center with the complete triad as well as typical features of the USP motif were also identified. Since the computational findings suggest that the enzyme could be functional, reverse transcription coupled to PCR was used as a first approach to establish if in fact the coding gene is expressed in the parasite. Interestingly, it was found not only that the gene is expressed, but also that there is a transcription variation along the life cycle of the parasite. These two findings are the starting point for further studies since they tentatively suggest that this enzyme could be involved in the protein turnover that occurs during parasite encystation. Although preliminary, this study is the first report concerning the study of a specific deubiquitinating enzyme in the parasite G. intestinalis.

Este artigo apresenta uma abordagem combinada com dois objetivos. A primeira é analisar a sequência informou da enzima ubiquitina carboxil-terminal hidrolase 14 de Giardia intestinalis (UBP6) através de métodos computacionais para encontrar os componentes relacionados com a sua função hipotética. A segunda é para determinar se o gene de codificação da proteína é expressa em G. intestinalis e, se for o caso, também determinar o seu padrão de transcrição ao longo do ciclo de vida do parasita. Foi estabelecido que a proteína pertence à família de deubiquitinases Cys-dependentes e mais especificamente para proteases específicas de ubiquitina (USPs por ubiquitin specific proteases). Além disso, o centro catalítico com a tríade completo, bem como as características típicas do motivo USP também foram identificados. Uma vez que os resultados computacionais sugerem que a enzima poderia ser funcional, a transcrição reversa acoplada a PCR foi utilizado como uma primeira abordagem para determinar se, de facto, o gene codificante é expressa no parasita. Curiosamente, verificou-se não só que o gene é expresso, mas também que há uma variação de transcrição ao longo do ciclo de vida do parasita. Estes dois elementos são o ponto de partida para estudos posteriores, uma vez que tentativas sugerem que esta enzima pode estar envolvida no refill de proteínas que ocorre durante o parasita encistamento. Embora preliminares, este estudo é o primeiro relatório relativo ao estudo de uma enzima deubiquitinadora específica no parasita intestinalis.

Estudios previos han demostrado la existencia y expresión de genes esenciales para el proceso de ubiquitinación de proteínas en Giardia intestinalis, indicando que el sistema ubiquitina-proteosoma puede estar involucrado en el proceso de degradación de proteínas de este parásito durante su ciclo de vida. En el presente trabajo se realizó la purificación de ubiquitina a partir de extractos proteicos de trofozoítos de G. intestinalis, se produjo un anticuerpo anti-ubiquitina específico que permitió la estandarización de un ensayo para la detección y evaluación de los patrones de ubiquitinación, y se identificó la HSP90 como una proteína ubiquitinada en este protozoario. Esta modificación post-transduccional puede tener efectos regulatorios asociados con la funcionalidad de la proteína o con el recambio para regular eventos moleculares claves durante el ciclo de vida del parásito.

Previous studies have demonstrated the existence and expression of genes essential to the process of protein ubiquitination in Giardia intestinalis, indicating that the ubiquitin-proteasome system may be involved in the degradation of proteins during its life cycle of the parasite. In this study, purification of ubiquitin was conducted from protein extracts of G. intestinalis trophozoites. Then, an anti-ubiquitin specific antibody was obtained to standardize an assay for the detection and evaluation of ubiquitination patterns. Finally, HSP90 was identified as an ubiquitinated protein in this protozoan. This post-translational modification could have regulatory effects associated with the functionality of the protein or its turnover to regulate key molecular events during the parasite’s life cycle.

Estudos anteriores demonstraram a existência e expressão de genes essenciais para o processo de ubiquitinação de proteínas em Giardia intestinalis, indicando que o sistema ubiquitina-proteassoma podem estar envolvidos na degradação de proteínas do parasita durante seu ciclo de vida. Neste trabalho, foi realizada a purificação da proteína ubiquitina de extratos de trofozoítos de G. intestinalis, foi produzido um antiicorpo anti-ubiquitina específico que permitiu a padronização de um ensaio para a detecção e avaliação de padrões de ubiquitinação e foi identificado a HSP90 como uma proteína ubiquitinada no protozoário. Esta modificação pós-transducional pode ter efeitos regulamentares associados com a funcionalidade das proteínas ou com o a substituição para regular eventos moleculares importantes durante o ciclo de vida do parasita.

Introducción. Giardia intestinalis es un parásito unicelular diseminado mundialmente. Causa una enfermedad intestinal conocida como giardiosis y, probablemente, es el microorganismo eucarionte más tempranamente divergente. Objetivo. En el presente estudio se determinó la expresión de las enzimas de piruvato oxidorreductasa ferredoxina (PFOR) y deshidrogenasa E de alcohol (ADHE) en los estadios de quiste y trofozoíto, y durante el proceso de desenquistamiento (excystacion). Previamente se habían demostrado cambios en sus ARNm. Materiales y métodos. Se generaron proteínas recombinantes de PFOR y ADHE que fueron usadas como antígenos para la producción de anticuerpos policlonales. Éstos se emplearon para la detección de las proteínas nativas por Western blot. Evaluamos la actividad enzimática de ADHE y de la glutamato deshidrogenasa (glutamate dehydrogenase, GDH) por ensayos espectrofotométricos. Resultados. Las proteínas PFOR (139 kDa) y ADHE (97 kDa) se detectaron en trofozoítos, pero no en quistes. Durante el desenquistamiento (excystacion), la proteína ADHE se detectó sólo después de la primera fase de inducción y la proteína PFOR sólo después de la segunda fase. Esto indica que ambas proteínas son sintetizadas durante el desenquistamiento (excystacion), aunque en un momento diferente. La actividad enzimática de ADHE está presente sólo en los trofozoítos y no en los quistes, mientras que la actividad de la enzima GDH se detectó en trofozoítos y quistes. Conclusiones. Nuestros resultados muestran de forma concluyente que las enzimas PFOR y ADHE son traducidas en el proceso de desenquistamiento (excystacion) y esto demuestra que existe un proceso activo de síntesis de proteínas durante él.

Introduction. Giardia intestinalis is a unicellular parasite of worldwide distribution. It causes an intestinal illness known as giardiasis, and it is probably the earliest diverging eukaryotic microorganism. Previously, changes have been reported in the expression of mRNAs at several stages of the life cycle; however specific enzymatic activity changes have not been explored. Objective. The expression of pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) and alcohol dehydrogenase E (ADHE) enzymes was measured in cyst and trophozoite stages, and during the excystation process. Materials and methods. Recombinant proteins were generated for PFOR and ADHE to be used as antigens in the production of polyclonal antibodies for the detection of native proteins by Western Blot. The enzymatic activity of ADHE and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) was evaluated by spectrophotometric assays. Results. PFOR (139 kDa) and ADHE (97 kDa) proteins were detected in trophozoites, but not in cysts. During excystation, ADHE protein was detected after the first phase of induction, but the PFOR protein appeared only after the second phase. This indicated that both proteins were synthesized during excystation, although at different times. ADHE enzymatic activity was present only in trophozoites and not in cysts whereas GDH activity was detected in both stages. Conclusion. These results conclusively showed that PFOR and ADHE enzymes were translated during the excystation process and is strong evidence that active protein synthesis was occurring during excystation.

The reproductive mechanism of Giardia intestinalis, considered one of the earliest divergent eukaryotes, has not been fully defined yet. Some evidence supports the hypothesis that Giardia is an exclusively asexual organism with a clonal population structure. However, the high genetic variability, the variation in ploidy during its life cycle, the low heterozygosity and the existence of genes involved in the meiotic-like recombination pathway in the parasite's genome cast doubt on exclusively asexual nature of Giardia. In this work, semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis was used to assess the transcription pattern of three meiosis-like-specific genes involved in homologues recombination: dmc1, hop1 and spo11. The mRNAs were amplified during the parasite's differentiation processes, encystation and excystation, and expression was found at each stage of its life cycle. A semiquantitative assessment also suggests that expression of some of the genes is regulated during encystation process.

Diversidad genética de poblaciones de Giardia intestinalis en Colombia

Introduction. Giardia intestinalis is a protozoan parasite that causes a gastrointestinal infection known as giardiosis, which is transmitted primarily through fecal-oral contamination. Genetic studies of axenically cultivated Giardia isolates have identified two major genetic groups distributed throughout the world. In the present study 24 native strains of the parasite were analyzed by the RAPD technique (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA). Objective. To determine the level of polymorphism and the complexity of Giardia intestinalis circulating strains in specific areas of Colombia. Materials and methods. The RAPD method was used, as it allows for a quick, simple and reliable analysis that requires no prior knowledge of the genetics of the parasite. A RAPD analysis was conducted on native isolates collected in Colombia between 1997 and 2001, established in continuous cultures. Several primers were tested separately, in order to enhance the capacity for discrimination of the method. Results. Of the 24 strains that were included in the study, 22 were arranged in independent clusters. The strains that were from the same geographic area and collected at about the same time, generally displayed highly similar but distinguishable RAPD patterns. Clones isolated from a strain were analyzed as well, and it was possible to differentiate them molecularly. Conclusion. The studied strains showed to belong to genotype A .The results suggest that the Colombian strains studied consist of a heterogeneous mixture of closely related populations.

Introducción. Plasmodium falciparum es un parásito altamente polimórfico, lo cual le permite evadir la respuesta inmune del hospedero, diseminar la resistencia a medicamentos y favorecer la transmisión. Objetivos. Analizar la diversidad genética de las poblaciones de P. falciparum en muestras de cuatro zonas endémicas de malaria en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se incluyeron muestras de sangre recolectadas en papel de filtro de 123 pacientes con malaria no complicada por P. falciparum durante los años 2002 a 2004; la genotipificación se realizó mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con iniciadores específicos para los marcadores moleculares de la región polimórfica del bloque 2 del gen msp1 y del codón 108 de dhfr. Resultados. En el bloque 2 del gen msp1 se detectó MAD20 en 95,9% (118/123; IC 95%: 90,8 a 98,7), K1 en 6,5% (8/123; IC 95%: 2,8 a 12,4) y RO33 en 2,4% (3/123; IC 95%: 0,5 a 6,9) de las muestras. Para el gen dhfr, el alotipo mutante N108 se detectó en todas las muestras analizadas y el alotipo T108 en 3,2% (4/123; IC 95%: 0,9 a 8,1); el alotipo silvestre S108 se encontró en 34,1% (42/123; IC 95%: 25,8 a 43,2). Al combinar los resultados de ambos genes, el 61,8% (76/123; IC 95%: 52,6 a 70,4) de las muestras correspondieron a infecciones simples y el 38,2% (47/123; IC 95%: 29,6 a 47,4) a infecciones mixtas, siendo MAD20/N108-S108 la combinación más frecuente entre estas últimas (30,1%). Conclusiones. Las infecciones simples, o sea, la presencia de un solo alelo en cada uno de los genes, predominaron en las muestras estudiadas; las poblaciones de parásitos analizadas fueron muy homogéneas en su composición genética.

Introduction. Plasmodium falciparum is a highly polymorphic parasite, which allows it to evade the host´s immune response, spread drug resistance and favours transmission. Objectives. To analyse the genetic diversity of P. falciparum populations in samples from four endemic localities in Colombia. Materials and methods. 123 blood samples were collected on filter paper from patients with non-complicated P. falciparum malaria during 2002 to 2004. The samples were genotyped using polymerase chain reaction with specific primers for the polymorphic region of block 2 of the msp1 gene and the 108 codon of the dhfr gene. Results. In msp1 block 2, 95.9% (118/123; 95% CI: 90.8-98.7) of the samples harboured MAD20; 6.5% K1 (8/123; 95% CI: 2.8-12.4) and 2.4% RO33 (3/123; 95% CI: 0.5-6.9). For the dhfr gene the mutant allele N 108 was found in all the samples amplified, T 108 in 3.2 % and the wild type S 108 in 34.1%. Taking together all the results from both genes, 61.8% (76/123; 95% CI: 52.6-70.4) of the samples were simple infections and 38.2% (47/123; 95% CI: 29.6-47.4) were mixed infections. MAD20/N108-S108 (30.1%) was the most frequent combination among the latter. Conclusions. Simple infections, i.e, a single allelic type in each one of the genes studied, prevailed among the circulating parasite populations. In this study the genetic composition of P. falciparum parasite populations was very homogeneous.

Introducción. La enzima telomerasa participa en la regulación de la longitud de los telómeros al sintetizar nuevas repeticiones teloméricas que compensan las pérdidas en cada ronda de replicación del ADN. Por esta razón, el bloqueo de su actividad se plantea como un posible blanco de acción para detener el crecimiento de células con altas tasas de crecimiento. Tal es el caso de Plasmodium falciparum, parásito causante de la forma más grave de malaria humana, en la cual se sabe que hay actividad de telomerasa pero no se tiene información sobre la enzima misma. Metodología. Para hacer un acercamiento al estudio de la telomerasa en P. falciparum, se realizó un alineamiento múltiple de las secuencias de la subunidad catalítica de la telomerasa disponibles en bases de datos y se obtuvo una secuencia consenso, la cual se comparó con las secuencias generadas en el proyecto de genoma de P. falciparum. Se encontró una secuencia que podría corresponder a parte del gen de la telomerasa de P. falciparum. Para comprobarlo, se diseñaron iniciadores que se utilizaron en ensayos de amplificación sobre el ADN y el ARN del parásito. Resultados. Se amplificaron fragmentos de ADN correspondientes a motivos conservados en las telomerasas y se detectó la presencia del ARNm mediante trascripción reversa y PCR sobre el ADNc generado. De esta manera, al combinar la utilización de herramientas de bioinformática y su posterior comprobación mediante técnicas de biología molecular, se obtuvo la secuencia del gen de la subunidad catalítica de la telomerasa en P. falciparum y se comprobó su presencia y trascripción en el parásito.

Identification of the gene sequence of telomerase catalitic subunit in Plasmodium falciparum. Introduction: The enzyme telomerase participates in the regulation of telomere length synthesizing new telomeric repeats to compensate the loss in each DNA replication cycle. Thus, telomerase is a possible target to stop the growth of cells with high replication rates. This is the case of Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes the most severe kind of human malaria. It is known that it has telomerase activity but the information on the enzyme is very poor. Methods: In order to approach to the study of telomerase in P. falciparum, a multiple alignment was done using telomerase catalytic subunit sequences found in data bases. A consensus sequence was obtained, and it was compared with the sequences in the P. falciparum genome project and as a result, a sequence that could be part of the telomerase gene was found. To test that, a set of primers was designed and used to perform amplifications over DNA and RNA. Results: DNA fragments corresponding to telomerase conserved domains were amplified and by using reverse transcription and PCR over the cDNA, the presence of mRNA was detected. In this way, using bioinformatics tools and testing them with molecular biology techniques, the sequence of telomerase catalytic subunit gene (TERT) in P. falciparum was obtained and its presence and transcription were demonstrated.

The invasion of the erythrocyte by Plasmodium falciparum depends on the ability of the merozoite to move through the membrane invagination. This ability is probably mediated by actin dependent motors. Using affinity columns with G-actin and F-actin we isolated actin binding proteins from the parasite. By immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation with specific antibodies we identified the presence of tropomyosin, myosin, a-actinin, and two different actins in the eluate corresponding to F-actin binding proteins. In addition to these, a 240-260 kDa doublet, different in size from the erythrocyte spectrin, reacted with an antibody against human spectrin. All the above mentioned proteins were metabolically radiolabeled when the parasite was cultured with 35S-methionine. The presence of these proteins in P. falciparum is indicative of a complex cytoskeleton and supports the proposed role for an actin-myosin motor during invasion.

We have studied the activity of a calcium dependent transglutaminase (EC 2.3.2.13) during the growth of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum inside the infected human erythrocyte. There is only one detectable transglutaminase in the two-cell-system, and its origin is erythrocytic. No activity was detected in preparations of the parasite devoid of erythrocyte cytoplasm. The Michaelis Menten constants (Km) of the enzyme for the substrates N'N'dimethylcaseine and putrescine were undistinguishable whether the cell extracts used in their determination were obtained from normal or from infected red cells. The total activity of transglutaminase in stringently synchronized cultures, measured at 0.5mM Ca2+, decreased with the maturation of the parasite. However, a fraction which became irreversibly activated and independent of calcium concentration was detected. The proportion of this fraction grew with maturation; it represented only 20% of the activity in 20 hr-old-trophozoites while in 48-hr-schizonts it was more than 85% of the total activity. The activation of this fraction of transglutaminase did not depend on an increase in the erythrocyte cytoplasmic calcium, since most of the calcium was shown to be located in the parasite.